Bending is usually accompanied by shear. The combination of shear and bending stresses produces principle stresses which causes diagonal tension in beam section. This should be resisted by providing shear reinforcement in form of vertical stirrups (or) bent up bars along with stirrups.

The volumetric strain is algebraic sum of all linear or axial strains that are
?v = ?xx + ?yy + ?zz
The volumetric strain will be 3 times linear strain in any of three axis and ?v = 3e
Where (e = linear strain).

Limit state of serviceability refers to ability of structure at working loads it is state of limit at which structure undergoes heavy deflection which affects finishes casting discomfort to users.

If ratio of effective length of column to least lateral dimension is less than 12. The column is called a short column. It fails by crushing (pure compression failure) and re is no chance of causing deflections.

For calculation of effective span, least of below values should be adopted:
1. Clear span + d = 6 + 0.4 = 6.4m
2. Clear span + bearings/2 + bearings/2 = 6+0.15/2+0.15/2 = 6.15m
The least of above values is 6.15 metres. Hence effective span is 6.15 m.

In situations, where straight anchorage length cannot be provided due to lack of space. To improve anchorage of bars, standard bends are provided in deformed bars.

Splices are provided when length of bar is less than that required. The splicing of reinforcement is provided eir by lap joint or mechanical joint or welded Joint. Lap splices should not be used for bars larger than 36 mm for larger diameter, bars may be welded.

The mid span moment in continuous beams and slabs is always less than support moment and hence weight of beam doesn?t affect stresses induced.

The inclined member carries compressive loads in case of frames and trusses are known as Struts. The Pedestal is a vertical compression member whose effective length is less than 3 times its least lateral dimension.

Explanation:

Shear stress distribution in some important figures is given below.