Twisting moment will be equal to product of perpendicular force and existing radius. Denoted by letter T and SI units are Nm.

Shearing stress is defined as resistance offered by internal stress to shear force. Shearing stress in a beam is maximum at a neutral axis.

The ratio of moment of inertia to distance to extreme fibre is called modulus of section. The Beam is stronger when section modulus is more. The strength of beam depends on section modulus. The beams of same strength mean section modulus is same for beams.

Percentage elongation = Total extension / Gauge length × 100
= 54/200 × 100
= 27%.

Cross sectional area of steel rod [Circular]be 490.87 mm².
The intensity of stress = P/A = 40000/490.87
= 81.49 N/mm².

If bending moment diagram of a beam seems to unsymmetrical, n with respect to that diagram, bending is said to be unsymmetrical bending.

The effective length of column depends upon end conditions.

Materials exhibiting time bound behaviour popularly known as visco elastic and if a body having similar properties throughout its volume it is known as homogeneous and according to one assumption, concrete is considered to be homogeneous material.

The bending moment leads to deform or deflect beam and internal stress resists bending. The resistance offered by internal stress to bending is called bending stress or ?fibre stress? or ?skin stress? or ?longitudinal stress?.

Neutral axis is defined as a line of intersection of neutral plane or neutral layer on a cross section at neutral axis of that section. At NA, bending stress or bending strain is zero. The first moment of area of a beam section about neutral axis is also zero. The layer of neutral axis neir contracts nor extends.