An open cross-staff is commonly used for setting out ............

Indirect ranging is adopted when the two ends of chain line are ............

In leveling, the effect of refraction may be taken as ............ of that due to curvature.

In tacheometrical observations, vertical staff holding is generally preferred to normal staffing, due to ............

In indirect method of contouring, the best method of interpolation if contours ............

Geodetic surveying is different from plane surveying because of ............

The adjustable cross-staff is used for setting out an offset ............

Anallatic lens is provided to ............

The polar equation for a lemniscate curve is ............