In Dutch cone test, base of cone has a cross-sectional area of 10 cm². The base of cone in Dutch cone test is 3.6 cm in diameter. The cone is carried at lower end of steel driving rod.

Augers are used in cohesive and or soft soils above water table.

The penetration and sounding tests involve measurement of resistance to penetration of a sampling spoon or or tools under dynamic or static loadings.

In standard penetration test, refusal has is said to have been reached when sampler penetrates less than 2.5cm under 50 blows. In very fine, silty, saturated sand, an apparent increase in resistance occurs.

The soil stabilised with cement (Portland cement) is usually known as soil cement.

The electrical resistivity and seismic refraction methods are most commonly used for civil engineering purposes.

Meyerhof in 1956 gave approximate values of ? with respect to density index I_D. For fines lesser than 5%, general formula is,
?=20+0.15 I_D
where, ?=angle of internal friction
I_D= density index.

In open drive samples, tube head is provided with vents. The vents or valves are provided so as to permit water and air to escape during driving. The check valve helps to retain sample when sampler is raised.

The field test may be conducted for determining in-situ values of density, bearing capacity, shearing strength, permeability, and pore pressure.

The depth of exploration for isolated spread footing is one and a half times width. While depth of exploration is twice height from stream bed to crest for concrete dams.