Gymnosperms are heterosporous i.e. y have different spores. The larger ones are called macro or mega spores that give rise to a female gametophyte. The smaller ones are called microspores and y germinate to form male gametophyte.

In chlorophyceae, chloroplasts contain storage bodies called Pyrenoids. Pyrenoids consists of proteins and starch. Chlorophyceae sometimes store food as oil droplets.

Gymnosperms are fruitless plants that are mostly found in hilly areas. They are perennial, evergreen and woody trees. They have needle-shaped leaves that are well-adapted to withstand extreme wear conditions. Gymnosperms are also termed as soft wood trees.

Artificial classification is oldest mode of classification in plantae kingdom. This classification laid foundation for classification in plants. Artificial classification classifies closely related species under one category. However, in this mode of classification vegetative and sexual characteristics are given equal preference.

In fragmentation, leaves/ stems fall off accidently and grow to form new individuals. Budding is a process in which an outgrowth develops and splits from parent thallus to produce new individual. Thallus has structures called gemmae cups that contain gemmae which in turn reproduce to form new individual. Sporophyte develops from a developed embryo and results in formation of spores. Therefore, sporophyte formation is a sexual process that involves two gametes.

After fertilization, zygote develops into an embryo and megasporangium tissue provides nutrition for development of embryo. Apart from providing nutrition to embryo, megasporangium tissue plays a vital role in development of female gametophyte.

After fusion, embryo develops into a structure called Sporophyte that grows out on Gametophyte. It has a long erect stalk called Seta that transfers water and nutrients from gametophyte to capsule. Capsule is portion of Sporophyte that bears spores. Foot is portion of Sporophyte that anchors to Gametophyte.

During unfavourable conditions, an outer layer that is formed outside chlamydomonas is called cyst. These unfavourable conditions allow multiple fission inside cyst.

The vegetative cells in Phaecophyceae are made up of two layers with inner one being made of cellulose and or being made of gelatinous coating of algin. A leaf like photosyntic organ in Phaecophyceae is called as frond. They also have a stalk called stipe and a substratum called as holdfast.

Gametophytes in plants that exhibit diplontic life cycle may be heterotrophic, autotrophic or saprophytic. For example: in angiosperms, few flowers can perform photosynsis while few ors are carnivorous like drosera and nepens and few ors are saprophytic like Broomrape.