The covering outside an ovule in Gymnosperms is called integument. It has a tiny hole at one end that allows germination of pollen grains that are carried to female gametophyte through air and water.

Phylogenetic classification considers evolutionary relationships between organisms. Fossil records, cytotaxonomy, chemotaxonomy and numerical taxonomy help in studying ir evolutionary structures.

In coralloid roots, roots are short and irregularly arranged and exist in symbiotic association with cyanobacteria. Cyanobacteria help in fixing of Nitrogen and at same time manage to get shelter in rots.

The female sex organs in bryophytes are called archegonium and y produce female gamete called egg. The male sex organ is called anridium and produce male gametes called anrozoids.

Female cones are absent in Ginkgo, Cycads and Taxus. Gymnosperms may be eir dioecious or monoecious i.e. y may be eir homosporous or heterosporous. The embryo that grows after fertilization is endoscopic in nature. Vessels in xylem and companion cells in phloem are absent in Gymnosperms.

Haploidic gametophyte is predominant phase in life cycle of mosses. Protonema, Sporophyte, Spores and Zygote are intermediary structures in life cycle of mosses.

Multiple fission is a process through which many individuals are produced by repeated nuclear division. Multiple fission takes place under unfavourable conditions. During multiple fission, an outer layer called cyst is formed. Nucleus divides repeatedly and new individuals are formed inside cyst after which cyst breaks to release new individuals.

Bryophytes are thalloid like structures and have virtual roots, stems and leaves. Although ir distinction is better than that of Thallophytes, y are still thalloid like structures.

Generally, most of algae are haplontic whereas few ors are diplontic. Fucus is one such alagae that exhibits diplontic behavior i.e. Sporophyte is dominant phase in case of fucus.

Haploid gametophyte is dominant phase in life cycle of liverworts. Diploid sporophyte, diploid zygote and diploid spores are short living intermediary structures that finally result in gametophyte.